Stone Encyclopedia (with download package)

Stone Encyclopedia

Stones contain natural crystals. These crystals reflect light and make the stone surface glossy. After the crystals are darkened, broken, and broken, they cannot reflect light evenly. Just like the lens of a flashlight breaks, it cannot reflect the light emitted by a light bulb. The polished stone floors are darkened because too many pedestrians, together with surface deposits, act together to abrade the crystals. Ordinary shoes are not the main reason for the destruction of crystals, sediments and gravel are the main enemy of stone. The pressure from the shoes forces the sediments to wear crystals and break the crystals, which causes damage to the crystals.
There are several kinds of stone surface treatment, how to identify?

There are many types of stone today, and the stone is processed to a certain type after ordering. The following examples illustrate the six main types of stone surfaces:

1. The grinding surface is smooth and has a slight sheen. Different gloss levels can be selected. The surface is very smooth but porous. This surface is common in many places. Because of the large hole size of the ground floor, a penetrating sealant should always be used. The color of the grind stone is not as bright as the polished surface.
2. The polished surface is shiny and over time it will lose its luster due to too many pedestrians and improper care. This surface is smooth and has few holes. The reflection of the crystal after polishing produces a brilliant color, showing the mineral particles of natural stone, and the luster comes from the natural reflection of the stone crystal. Polished tiles are used in the production to form a polished surface, and the gloss is not generated by the paint.

3. The fire burns rough and forms at high temperatures. When the stone is heated during production, the crystals burst and the surface is rough. Surface porous, must use a permeable sealant.
4. The tumbling surface is a bit rough, and it turns into an old-fashioned look by rolling marble, limestone and sometimes granite fragments inside the container. Stone color enhancers are often needed to make the color more vivid.
5. Sandblasting A high-pressure jet of sand and water is used to spray the sand onto the stone, creating a lustrous but not smooth surface.
6. The hammer is hammered to form a surface texture. The roughness can be selected.

How to identify the appearance quality of marble plate?

Marble is a high-grade decorative material that must be carefully selected to avoid wasting money. Slightly experienced stone practitioners know that stone as a natural material is affected by changes in geophysics and chemistry, as well as many factors such as mining and processing, and the quality of the same kind of product is quite different, as opposed to other traditions. For industrial products, on-site assessment is very important. The identification of marble appearance quality can be from the following few.

(1) Determining the hue of the pattern Under the condition of sufficient light, the selected plate and the same batch of other marble plates to be purchased are placed on the ground at the same time, and they are carefully observed at a distance of 1.5 m from them.
It is required that the tone of the pattern of the same batch of marble plates should be basically reconciled.
(2) Inspecting surface defects Under conditions of sufficient light, place the plate flat on the ground, stand at a distance of lm from the marble plate and observe invisible defects that are not defective; standing at lm from the plate lm is visible at 1.5m The unobvious defect is no obvious defect; the defect that is apparently seen 1.5m away from the plate is considered to be defective.
Observed defects are plate warpage; the surface of the plate has no cracks, trachoma, different color spots, stains and depressions. If it is determined that the above kinds of defects are not present, the plate is a superior product, and at the same time the front side of the plate is not allowed to have a missing corner defect; if the above defects are not obvious and there is no obvious missing corner, then the plate can be identified as a grade. If there are several defects, but does not affect the use, and the front of the sheet is only 1 length is not more than 8mm, width is less than 3mm lack of edge or length, width is not more than 3mm drop angle, you can determine the plate is a qualified product . If the board is damaged during transportation, loading or unloading, it can be bonded (for cracked boards) or repaired (for corners, pits, or pits on the surface). However, no obvious traces are allowed on the front side after bonding and repair, and the color should be close to the frontal color.

(3) View mark The order of marking of marble plate is: naming, classification, size, grade, and standard marble plate naming sequence: place of origin, name of pattern hue feature,
Marble (code M).
Marble slabs are divided into two categories: general slabs (codenamed N): square or rectangular slabs; shaped slabs (codenamed S): slabs of other shapes.
There are three grades of marble plates: premium products (code A), first grade products (code B) and qualified products (code C). The grade is based on the allowable deviation of the size of the sheet, the allowable flatness tolerance, the allowable angle tolerance, the appearance quality and the specular gloss.
For example, the first-class product sheet size 600mmX400mmX20mm produced by the white marble blocks of Fangshan, Beijing is named: Fangshan Hanbaiyu marble, and the mark is: Fangshan Hanbaiyu (M)N 600X400X20BJC79 The marble plate shall be specified at the factory. : Manufacturer's name, trademark, mark.
So by looking at the markers, you can understand the overall appearance of the sheet.
Which stone should pay attention to when choosing a stone?
At present, the use of stone is mainly used for decoration purposes. Compared with other decoration materials, the biggest difference is that the stone is a natural mineral. It is unique in many aspects such as color system, texture, construction, and material acquisition. The conditions; therefore, there are also ways to apply them when choosing. Overall, stone selection should be considered from the following aspects:
(a), the budget cost considerations The stone is a natural ore, and different stone materials often have significant differences in price due to their quality, quantity, and mining areas. Therefore, the owners and designers are When the initial selection is made, it should have a considerable degree of control over its cost.

(B), the expression of aesthetics Stone color, pattern and texture and other factors in the selection are subjective level, often due to owners and designers preferences are different, but if you can have a deeper understanding of natural stone, In the expression of design craftsmanship will be more outstanding and flexible.
The classification of ore formation mainly includes igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. The commonly used stone constructions in the area mainly consist of marbles (metamorphic rocks) and granites (igneous rocks); in general, marble-like stones have a comparative advantage. Rich colors and patterns, the texture of the performance of the main smooth and soft, while granite, although the changes in the color and pattern less, but the texture has a more flexible performance, in addition, granite in the overall The feeling seems more solemn and classical.

(III) Mastery of Stone Quality

1. Material uniformity and integrity:
Should try to avoid dark cracks, black defects and color differences and other issues.

2. Stone composition:
(1) Avoid excessively high levels of iron sulfides, iron oxides, salts, carbonaceous materials, and clays in the stone.
(2) Avoid stone containing radiation components. (3) Avoid excessively high coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and conductivity of minerals in the stone to avoid cracks, heat conduction, and electrical conductivity.

(D) Durability considerations When using stone as a decoration material, it is generally expected that the stone can have the same vitality as the structure body. Especially when it is used as an exterior wall and floor decoration, its durability is more important because it has good durability. Sex stone can not only ensure the appearance of the exterior of the building, but also ensure the firmness and safety of the stone so as not to hurt pedestrians after falling. However, the exterior wall and floor of the building are installed with stone, which has a great test on the stone itself:

1. In terms of physics: Stones must withstand the destruction of many external forces. Other forces include gravity, vibration, wind force, temperature changes, wear and load.

2. In terms of chemistry:
Including the hydration, dissolution, dehydration, acidification, reduction and chemical attack such as carbonate.

3. The stone with stable molecular structure, exposed to the atmosphere, contributes to the poor coordination between different minerals that make up the stone. For example, limestone meets acid (sulfurous acid gas and rainwater) to dissolve calcium sulfate after shape, resulting in the collapse of sandstone.
Therefore, the selection of stone should try to choose the pore distribution, small pore size, low water absorption, hardness and compressive strength are high, in order to meet the requirements of durability.

1. Select a stone with a low water absorption rate The higher the water absorption rate, the easier it is to absorb water and cause volume expansion. Moreover, due to the absorption of soluble components or salt in the air, the stone is eroded and the strength of the stone is reduced.
2. The higher the porosity of the stone with small pore size and low porosity, the higher the water absorption rate, and the easier it is to reduce the strength due to weathering.
(3) Stones with larger specific gravity, although having larger compressive strength, will increase the structural load and reduce the resistance to earthquakes.

4. When selecting directional stone materials (such as slate and shale), we must pay attention to the structural strength in different directions.

(e) Considerations for use of parts When stone is used in exterior walls, floors, high-rise buildings or other special external environments, the selection of stone types will be more important.
(6) Installation Method
(7) The total number of required stones

(8) What are the characteristics of natural stone with the source of the stone and the progress of the overall project?

1. Fire resistance is different from stone to stone. Some stone materials undergo chemical decomposition under high temperature.

(1) Gypsum: Decomposes at greater than 107C.
(2) Limestone, Marble: Decompose at greater than 910 c.
(3) Granite: Cracked at 600 °C due to uneven heating of the constituent minerals.
2. Expansion and contraction of stone is also thermal expansion and contraction, but if heated and then cooled, the contraction can not be restored to its original volume, but will remain a part of the permanent expansion; the American Armory had tested from 00C to 1000C, then down to 00C, The degree of permanent expansion was measured to be 0.02-0.045 %.

3. Frost resistance

When it reaches minus 20 o C, freezing occurs, and the expansion of water in the pores is 1/10 larger than the original volume. If the rock cannot resist the force generated by this expansion, it will be destroyed. Generally if the water absorption is less than 0.5%, its frost resistance is not considered.

4. Compressive strength The compressive strength of stone varies depending on factors such as mineral composition, crystal thickness, uniformity of cemented material, load surface area, loading angle, and angle of cleavage. If the other conditions are the same, the dense material, which is usually fine in crystal grains and adhered to each other, has higher strength. After the dense volcanic rocks are dry and saturated, there is no difference in compressive strength (water absorption is extremely low). In the case of porous and water-resistant cemented rocks, there is a significant difference in the strength of drying and moisture.
What are the benefits of using granite?

Answer: Granite is very hard and has coarser surface particles and is mainly composed of quartz, orthoclase, and common mica. Granite is produced in every continent, and some are the oldest stone in the world. Humans began using granite 6,000 years ago. It is said that as long as there is granite, there is no place that can be new. Granite is beautiful, durable and very hard. In ancient times, if there is today's mining, processing equipment and technology, it is certainly more popular than marble. Granite is present in a variety of colors due to its frequent presence of other minerals such as hornblende and mica, including: brown, green, red, and common black. Because it crystallizes slowly, its crystals are intertwined like cubes, so it is very hard. It is as durable as a house, does not contain debris, is not easily scratched, and is not afraid of high temperatures. Regardless of color or light, as long as there is some conservation knowledge, it will not fade or darken. He is almost uncontaminated, has a high surface gloss after polishing, and almost all of the impurities from the weather cannot adhere.
The price of granite is also affordable. Fortunately, with the new methods of mining, cutting, and polishing, the cost of granite has been dramatically reduced over the past few decades. Today, the price of granite can compete with cheap artificial stone, and it is more durable than anything else.
What's more, granite does not pollute the environment. Synthetic materials are often accompanied by bad or even toxic by-products, which need to be replaced several times during the construction period (each time there is a back-up problem). Granite does not need to be replaced because it is very durable. In addition, granite is very practical and can be made into a variety of surfaces - polished, matt, finely ground, fired, waterjet, and sandblasted.
All of these make granite very versatile - bricks, veneers, flooring, counter surfaces, kitchen floors, bathroom floors, laboratory benches - as long as you can think of them. It is no longer a simple stone, and the architects of the world have taken a look at its unparalleled appearance, its strong resistance to weather, and its long service life.
How to identify the appearance quality of marble plate?

A: Marble is a high-grade decorative material. You must be careful when purchasing it to avoid wasting money. Slightly experienced stone practitioners know that stone as a natural material is affected by changes in geophysics and chemistry, as well as many factors such as mining and processing, and the quality of the same kind of product is quite different, as opposed to other traditions. For industrial products, on-site assessment is very important. The identification of marble appearance quality can be from the following few.
(1) Determining the hue of the pattern Under the condition of sufficient light, the selected plate and the same batch of other marble plates to be purchased are placed on the ground at the same time, and they are carefully observed at a distance of 1.5 m from them.
It is required that the tone of the pattern of the same batch of marble plates should be basically reconciled.

(2) Inspecting surface defects Under conditions of sufficient light, place the plate flat on the ground, stand at a distance of lm from the marble plate and observe invisible defects that are not defective; standing at lm from the plate lm is visible at 1.5m The unobvious defect is no obvious defect; the defect that is apparently seen 1.5m away from the plate is considered to be defective. Observed defects are plate warpage; the surface of the plate has no cracks, trachoma, different color spots, stains and depressions. If it is determined that the above kinds of defects are not present, the plate is a superior product, and at the same time the front side of the plate is not allowed to have a missing corner defect; if the above defects are not obvious and there is no obvious missing corner, then the plate can be identified as a grade. If there are several defects, but does not affect the use, and the front of the sheet is only 1 length is not more than 8mm, width is less than 3mm lack of edge or length, width is not more than 3mm drop angle, you can determine the plate is a qualified product .
If the board is damaged during transportation, loading or unloading, it can be bonded (for cracked boards) or repaired (for corners, pits, or pits on the surface). However, no obvious traces are allowed on the front side after bonding and repair, and the color should be close to the frontal color.
(3) View mark The order of marking of marble plate is: naming, classification, size, grade, and standard marble plate naming sequence: place of origin, name of pattern hue feature,
Marble (code M).
Marble slabs are divided into two categories: general slabs (codenamed N): square or rectangular slabs; shaped slabs (codenamed S): slabs of other shapes.
There are three grades of marble plates: premium products (code A), first grade products (code B) and qualified products (code C). The grade is based on the allowable deviation of the size of the sheet, the allowable flatness tolerance, the allowable angle tolerance, the appearance quality and the specular gloss.
For example, the first-class product sheet size 600mmX400mmX20mm produced by the white marble blocks of Fangshan, Beijing is named: Fangshan Hanbaiyu marble, and the mark is: Fangshan Hanbaiyu (M)N 600X400X20BJC79 The marble plate shall be specified at the factory. : Manufacturer's name, trademark, mark.
So by looking at the markers, you can understand the overall appearance of the sheet.
How to use natural stone just right?
A: Currently, there are granite, marble and slate in the building materials market. Among them, the use of granite and marble is the largest. Granite is a veneer stone that is mined and processed from metamorphic rocks that are dominated by magma and silicate minerals. It is characterized by its high hardness, wear resistance, acid and alkali corrosion resistance, small pattern change, strong workability, and low water absorption. Marble is dominated by various types of carbonate rocks or magnesia carbonate rocks. Its soft texture, pure color, individual patterns, rich decorative, better water absorption. After knowing these characteristics, consumers can reasonably select different textures, colors, and specifications of stone according to their own preferences and the use of the room and the placement of furniture and electrical appliances.
In general, when decorating the floor, the living room, dining room and kitchen are more suitable to use granite, and the color should be deeper. You can choose large flower greens, Monte Carlo, Indian red coarse flowers, large white flowers or red brooks, etc. Juice, tea, wine, juice, etc. The bathroom and study are more suitable for marble, and the color is lighter. Usually, white and pink marble are used to decorate the walls of the kitchen and bathroom, giving people a sense of cleanliness, brightness and simplicity. With several color combinations and parquets, decorate the study room or the living room, give the host a warm feeling and give guests a feeling of home away from home. Bedrooms are either marble or granite, depending on consumer preferences. For countertop decoration, such as window sill, washstand, cooktop, coffee table, etc., in addition to kitchen countertops, coffee table is best to use granite, the other is appropriate to use marble countertops, can be bright color, beautiful pattern of large flowers green, Large white flowers, large green leaves, Rosin jade and other varieties.

What is the difference between natural slab stone and marble and granite?
A: Although the slate, marble, and granite are all decorative stones, it is different from marble and granite. It has obvious characteristics in terms of the geological characteristics of the deposit, the mining method, processing technology, and applications.
1. The most important quality sign of slabstone is split. Only plates with a certain strength and area can be used as slate.
2. Slate is dominated by artisanal mining and does not require strict block requirements;
3. Slate processing technology is relatively simple, no need to polish, no glossiness requirements;

4. The variety of slate is more monotonous and the color is more stable;
5. The cost and price of the stone are relatively low;
6. The distribution of slate in the region is governed by the tectonics and regional stratigraphy. The distribution of slate is often banded or flaky and the reserves are large.

Note: Because the stone board surface is not a true horizontal mirror, the bending degree is generally plus or minus 0.5mm. This may cause the meter to have a slight distance from the board surface, and the photometric measurement value will be low. If you turn a direction, The measured value will be displayed normally.

Artificial stone artificial knowledge artificial stone, as the name implies, that is not processed by 100% natural stone raw materials. According to their different production methods can be divided into two kinds: First, after grinding raw materials into stone powder, then add chemicals, adhesives, etc., made of high-pressure plate, and add artificial color and imitation stone texture on the appearance of color, improve Many changes and selectivity. The other is called artificial granite. After the original stone is broken, it is vacuum-stirred by adding colloidal material and stone, and it is shaped by high-pressure vibration to form a block of rock, which is then cut into building stone slabs; Retaining the natural texture, you can also unify colors, add favorite colors, or insert glass, acrylic, etc. to enrich the diversity of color. Commonly used for indoor decoration materials are granite, pearl sand shells, and cultural stone, and its hardness is not as hard as natural stone, and has a distinct texture difference. However, because its price is much lower than that of natural stone, it is becoming more and more popular. Especially synthetic stone with 90% natural stone overcomes the lack of easy-breakage of natural stone and difficult texture control, and retains the natural taste of natural stone in the global market. There is even a place for floor materials to replace marble and granite.
About the stone color stone The reason why the stone is used to decorate high-end buildings is to use its excellent physical properties, especially its rich colors, which is unmatched by other materials. However, because the color of the stone is naturally formed, the quality of the color is determined by the pigment ions contained in the stone and the internal structure. At the same time, the order of formation of the different minerals that make up the stone will also affect the color change. This is what we call the color difference. Therefore, we often encounter color differences when using decorative stone.
According to the different stone structure and color characteristics, we will summarize the two types of decorative stone with color difference, and propose different solutions accordingly:

one,
Stones of the same color in the same color stone group refer to a stone material having the same structure and characteristics and having the same or similar color components. For example, the large flowers and mid-flowers, mid-flowers and florets, smooth and matte surfaces, new surfaces and old surfaces, and upper and lower seams of Shandong white hemp belong to the same color stone. For the color difference between such stones, we recommend using color-enhancing stone curing agents (also known as wet colorants, preservatives) for processing. Color-enhancing stone curing agent is suitable for the adjustment of minor color differences between the same color stone, and the addition of dark-colored stone with breathable micropores such as marble, granite, sandstone, slate, etc. deal with. The effect of color enhancement on light stone is less obvious. Since it is not easy to fade after the coloration, it is recommended to do a sample test first and confirm the effect before doing a large area construction.

two,
Stones of different colors Stones of different colors refer to a type of stone that has completely different structures and characteristics, and whose color components are completely different or vary greatly. For example: gold line beige and new sago beige, Spanish beige and white sand beige, Shandong white linen and American gray linen belong to different colors of stone.
For the color difference between them, we suggest using coloring (staining) for processing. At present, there are about twenty kinds of stone coloring methods at home and abroad, and most of them require specific equipment or sites. This is not realistic for the stone conservation industry.
After our many years of experience summarizing, we believe that the use of stone dyes for coloring is a simple and convenient and effective way. However, since the stone is not easily removed after being colored, it is recommended that professional technicians perform the construction so as to avoid unnecessary losses.

Types of stone The types of stone commonly used today fall into four major categories: sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks, igneous rocks, and artificial stones.

1. Sedimentary rocks Sedimentary rocks are detached from the debris in organisms such as glaciers, rivers, winds, oceans, and plants, depositing and forming rock deposits, which are consolidated through high temperature and high pressure for millions of years.

1.
Limestone: The main mineral composition is calcite. Mineral particles and crystal structure are rare, the surface is smooth, small particles. Hardness varies, some dense limestone can be polished. The colors are black, gray, white, yellow and brown. Limestone contains lime formed from seawater, hence its name.

2. Sandstone: Formed from quartz particles (sand), stable in structure, usually light brown or red, mainly containing silicon, calcium, clay and iron oxide.
3. Soapstone:
Made of various talcs, it is very soft. It is a wear-resistant dense mineral that is not susceptible to smudging.
4. Fossils: Contains marine shellfish, natural fossils of plants, considered to be limestone.
5. Travertine (hole stone): Generally creamy or light red, it is deposited from the calcite of hot springs. Many holes are formed due to the flow of water through the stones. These holes are filled with synthetic resin or cement, otherwise a lot of maintenance work is required. Limestone and marble.

Second, Metamorphic Rock Metamorphic rock is another type of stone that is naturally degenerated by a stone under the mixture of high temperature and high pressure and minerals. The qualitative change may be recrystallization, texture change, or color change.

1. Marble is a recrystallized limestone that softens at high temperatures and pressures and recrystallizes to form marble when the contained minerals change. The main components are calcium and dolomite, with many colors, usually with obvious patterns and many mineral particles. Mohs hardness between 2.5 and 5.

Marble is divided into three categories:
Dolomite: Magnesite (calcium carbonate) content more than 40%

Forsterite: The content of magnesite (calcium carbonate) is between 5% and 40%.

Calcite: magnesite (calcium carbonate) content less than 5%
2. Slate: A metamorphic rock formed of clay rocks, sedimentary shales (sometimes made of quartz), which are fine, thin and brittle, usually black, gray or green.

3. Serpentine is named after its snakelike skin. The most common colors are green and brown. Mohs hardness between 2.5 and 4. Contains large amounts of magnesium, derived from igneous rocks. Recrystallization and diamond polishing are sometimes poor.
Third, the igneous rock igneous rock is mainly formed by volcanic materials, such as magma. The liquid magma below the surface cools and solidifies. Mineral gases and liquids penetrate the rock to form new crystals and various colors.

granite:
It is mainly composed of quartz (35%), feldspar (45%) and potassium, and is generally dark in color. Calcite is very small even if it is contained. The texture is very hard, easier to maintain than marble, but there are still holes and smudges. According to the mixing ratio of quartz, mica and feldspar, granite is divided into different types. Black granite is calcium feldspar, contains very little quartz, feldspar, and its composition is different from real granite.
Fourth, artificial stone artificial stone is used non-natural mixture.
Made of materials such as resin, cement, and gravel binders.
Terrazzo:
Marble and granite fragments are embedded in the cement mixture.

Conglomerate or aggregate stone:
Marble chips are embedded in the colored resin mixture.

Cultural stone or imitation stone resin mixture painted or mixed with paint, looks like marble


The price of natural stone Stone is calculated according to the square meter price, but: 1: The stone price is calculated and quoted according to the thickness (18) and the specification (600X600) of the standard plate. The price of a 200X1800 board is definitely more expensive than a 600X600 wrench, although the area is the same. Special specifications confirm special prices. 2: Stone is a natural product and there is a color difference. If all the plates are selected with a similar number of colors, the price is definitely higher than the natural match. 3: Pattern matching problem. For example, the price of a marble target (600X600) is 200, but for the wall (2400X3600, equivalent to 24 targets) the overall effect of the stone pattern, the price is not 4800, it is likely to be 480,000! 4: The same variety of stone, the same specifications and grades, different degrees of polish, but also a great price difference. In the same stone, foreign countries import block materials from China, and the processed plates may be several times more expensive than domestic ones. The edging and opening of the stone are different according to the form of the edge, and the price of the hole (spelling) is calculated separately. In addition special stone, stone fast, floral ornaments, spell columns, column foundation, etc., are not calculated according to the square meter price.


Stone surface texture

There are many types of stone today, and the stone is processed to a certain type after ordering. The following examples illustrate the six main types of stone surfaces:

1. The grinding surface is smooth and has a slight sheen. Different gloss levels can be selected. The surface is very smooth but porous. This surface is common in many places. Because of the large hole size of the ground floor, a penetrating sealant should always be used. The color of the grind stone is not as bright as the polished surface.
2. The polished surface is shiny and over time it will lose its luster due to too many pedestrians and improper care. This surface is smooth and has few holes. The reflection of the crystal after polishing produces a brilliant color, showing the mineral particles of natural stone, and the luster comes from the natural reflection of the stone crystal. Polished tiles are used in the production to form a polished surface, and the gloss is not generated by the paint.
3. The fire burns rough and forms at high temperatures. When the stone is heated during production, the crystals burst and the surface is rough. Surface porous, must use a permeable sealant.
4. The tumbling surface is a bit rough, and it turns into an old-fashioned look by rolling marble, limestone and sometimes granite fragments inside the container. Stone color enhancers are often needed to make the color more vivid.

5. Sandblasting A high-pressure jet of sand and water is used to spray the sand onto the stone, creating a lustrous but not smooth surface.
6. The hammer is hammered to form a surface texture. The roughness can be selected.


Stone and Stone Radioactivity

Stone has many advantages: natural materials, bright crystal, hard permanent, noble and elegant. All kinds of public and high-use buildings are all decorated with stone to improve the "grade." With the increase in the income level of the Chinese people, the use of stone has also entered the millions of households in the decoration and decoration. However, in recent days, various media have continuously reported on the radioactive problems of stone materials, making stone materials with a reputation of being “natural”, “green” and “healthy” cast a terrible layer in people’s minds. Shadows. Then, how should we justly and scientifically understand the radioactive problems of stone and stone?

one.
Stone
1.
There are various types of stone materialization properties, but stone materials for home decoration mainly include gangue rock and marble. China is a large country with many stone producing countries. There are hundreds of species that have been named in stone country varieties, and nearly 2,000 species have not been numbered. From the composition point of view, granite is mainly composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica, and marble is mainly composed of calcite or dolomite. From my viewpoint, granite has many colors, many varieties, and the appearance of large particles, and marble color and variety There are few granites and fine textures. From the aspect of physical and chemical properties, granite has good acid and alkali resistance and hardness, while marble has poor acid and alkali resistance. Therefore, with dilute hydrochloric acid added to the surface of the stone, if a chemical reaction occurs and bubbles are generated, it can be determined that the stone is marble. Otherwise, it can be determined as granite. The list of physical properties required by JC/T79-92(96) "Natural Marble Building Plate" and JC/T205-92(96) "Natural Ring Building Plate" standards are now listed.

2. Overview of Stone Production at Home and Abroad At present, the world's major stone-producing countries are ranked by production. See Table 2: European stone material production has always been a leader in world production, but its production has accounted for 77% of the world's total production. It fell to 52.6% in 1997. Italy's annual mining volume has remained at 7.2-7.5 million tons between 1990 and 1997, and it still maintains its position as the world's largest producer of stone products. However, its share of world stone production has been declining. For example, it accounted for about 30% in the mid-1980s, 25% in the late 1980s, 19.8% in 1994, and 16.4% in 1997. The most active stone mining today is Asia. The first is China. The development of natural stone industry has achieved rapid development since the reform and opening up. There are about 27,000 stone companies of all kinds of ownership and 5 million employees. By the end of 1998, the country’s stone production rose from the 27th in the world in the early 1980s to the second in the world, with an average annual growth rate of more than 20%. The production of stone in China has increased from 1 million tons in 1990 to 6 million tons in 1997. The import and export volume of stone increased from less than 10 million US dollars in the early 1980s to 980 million US dollars in 1997. There are stone resources in more than 30 provinces, cities and autonomous regions in China and they have been developed. The stone reserves are very rich, and the special breeds rank among the top in the world. There are more than 3,000 ore-building sites in the country, with thousands of species. China's granite resources are now concentrated in the coastal provinces. In Shandong, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and other five provinces and autonomous regions, its output accounts for almost 70% of the national granite production.

two. About Stone Radioactivity
1. The sources and properties of radioactive materials in stone products It is estimated that 4 billion years ago, the radioactive levels of the four main radioactive substances, uranium, plutonium, radium, and potassium, were about three times larger than they are today. Science has proven that radiation is almost everywhere, but human sensory organs cannot directly detect its existence. In other words, almost all substances on the earth contain radioactive elements, including our own body. Stone is naturally taken from nature and contains radioactive material. The radioactivity of stone products comes from the natural radionuclides contained in the rock of the crust. Natural radionuclides widely found in natural rocks include uranium series, decay products of lanthanides, and potassium-40. The average content of these radionuclides in different types of rocks varies greatly, and their content is lower in carbonate rocks. In magmatic rocks, as the content of SIO in rocks increases, the acidity of rocks increases, and the average of radionuclides increases. The value content increases regularly. The gamma-ray emitters produced in stone are mainly uranium series, lanthanide decay daughters, and potassium-40, and the internal irradiation of the human body is mainly uranium and lanthanide isotopes and their short-lived daughters.

2. Stone radioactive classification control standards and some stone radioactive data (1) JC518-93 "natural stone radioactive protection classification control standards" Introduction JJ518-93 natural stone products according to the level of radioactivity levels are divided into three categories. (1) The specific radioactivity of stone in Class A product satisfies both formulae (1) and (2).

3. Stone radiation affects human health The harm of human body to radiation comes from two aspects: one is external radiation (external radiation); the other is internal radiation caused by radioactive elements in human body. in normal conditions. The radiation we humans receive is low dose radiation. The most harmful radiation to the human body is the "dumping" produced by radioactive elements in the decay process, which is what we allege is internal radiation. Radon is a radioactive element and it is a gas. If a person is living in an environment in which the concentration of terpene is too high, the sputum is deposited in the lungs, especially in the bronchi and epithelial tissues through the respiratory tract of the person, and emits a large amount of radiation, thereby impairing human health. The uranium mining area is a region with high concentration of germanium. As early as 1937 in Europe, the incidence of lung disease of uranium miners was 28.7 times that of ordinary people. Later, ventilation measures were taken to artificially control the concentration of germanium in mines, and the incidence of miners was significantly reduced. Therefore, if the room has been paved with high-radioactive stone, it is best to open doors and windows regularly every day, in order to reduce the indoor concentration of radon. In the past, humans were not concerned about the effects of low-dose radiation on human health. However, with the development of economy, a variety of new building materials (some materials incorporate a large amount of radioactive residue) to build a living environment for human beings, resulting in a general increase in the level of living environment radioactivity, people also suspect that some species of radioactivity is higher as a room decoration The material stone's stone thanks to the impact of radioactivity on human health, but also a certain reason. There are also different views on low-dose irradiation professionals, and both parties lack the necessary epidemiological survey clinical data. However, one thing is certain: that high-dose irradiation of radiation will certainly cause detrimental effects on human health. However, there may be cancer in doses of building materials and stones, and the probability of occurrence of cancer varies with the dose. Increase and increase, usually a few hundred thousand. In general, most of the stone varieties in China are designed to meet the needs of home decorating. The level of radioactivity is comparable to that of other building materials. Of course, we can't deny that there are indeed some varieties of Class A products with high levels of radioactivity and standard requirements, which is related to the mine from which the stone is taken. In this regard, as long as we rationally use stone, we do not have to worry about its harm to human health.

three. Concluding remark The detection of stone radioactivity is a very professional job. It is difficult for people who do not have professional knowledge to make it clear. In particular, some statements that have been unclear in recent years and made people feel fearful have caused people to panic about the consumption of stone. We are very worried about this. The national mandatory standard JC518-93 is of a statutory nature and must be implemented consistently. However, it has been promulgated for several years. Why do managers who are stone production companies not attach great importance to it?归根到底还是产品质量意识差。石材企业应根据本企业生产的品种，对其放射性水平进行检测，分清A、B、C类，给消费者以明示，但市场上实际销售情况并非这样。使消费者产生种种忧虑，产生消极的社会影响。我们呼吁石材企业的决策者们，应严格执行标准，这一决不能马虎！
石材搬运中应注意的问题

1、搬运前的准备工作：预防为主、有备无患。为了安全，不受损失，可根据不同情况，按产品规格大小、质量、路程的远近，运输方式的不同等做好准备。如大规格板材用质地坚硬的木方牢固钉架。条板可用木板条、铁匝打捆。异型产品、工艺品要用纸箱、木箱包装，保护好锐角。对洁白易污染产品严禁用有色的塑料和草绳打捆。

2、应用吊车或插车时要注意：
钢丝绳用牢固，挂钢丝绳时可根据板材的大小均均放置。挂钩应在中心位置，忽闻偏斜，抽绳时要爽快、不硬抽，以防划破板材表面。
操作者要精神集中，严禁闲人靠近；
用吊车装卸石材时检查周围有无高压电线和障碍操作的建筑。石材被吊车悬在空中时，切勿摆动。

3、短距离在门市、货场、机房、居室应用小型拖车，车长短与石材要适宜，车架、车胎要完好，搬运要平稳。装前、卸后，人工搬运时要将板材竖立抬搬，严禁平抬。搬运人员要戴手套，勿穿拖鞋。

4、运载的火车、般只、大吨位的汽车，大致可分集装箱、密封货柜。露天排放严禁石材吊放排横排，应沿运行方向顺立、减少损失。汽车搬运形式最多，事故多。要注意要点有：
要选好车，尤其是运大板石材时，决不让病车上路。中心车架要牢固，押车要备2-3根钢丝绳器，切勿用纤维麻绳代替；车辆遇山路、雨雪天气、刮大风或过人要减速，特别当心。勿急转弯、刹车。
要根据产品装货，装货时要将毛光板、厚板靠前或放在底层。成品或薄板放在上层或靠后，每层间要用木条分隔，减少碰边角、磨损。
人货分载，严禁人员乘坐运载石材的车。


进口石材检验程序

1目的及适用范围

1．1目的

为贯彻落实国家质检总局、外经贸部和海关总署2001年第14号公告(以下简称14号公告)，规范和加强全国进口石材放射性检验监管工作，保证检验工作质量，依据《中华人民共和国进出口商品检验法》及其《实施条例》等法律法规规定，特制定本操作程序。
1．2适用范围本操作程序适用于进口石材的放射性检验监管工作。
2术语

2．1石材：本操作程序指石材系指14号公告中列明的HS编码为2515＼2516、6801、6802项下的所有商品。
2．2本操作程序引用了中华人民共和国国家现行标准《建筑材料放射性核素限量》(GB 6566—2001)的术语，并引用该标准为分类依据。

2．3可疑值：指采用便携式仪器进行现场放射性检测时，在保证较高检出率又不漏检的前提下，对是否满足某一比活度限量需要通过实验室核素分析来确定的现场控制值。可疑值随检出率高低、检测仪器灵敏度以及检测条件等变化而不同，具体数值应由各口岸检验检疫机构在实践中结合本地天然放射性本底值，逐步摸索掌握。
2．4检验批：同一报检批下的所有石材。

3管理方式
3．1国家质检总局检验监管司主管全国进口石材的检验监管工作。

3．2对进口石材实施放射性检验，采取现场抽查检测和实验室核素分析相结合的检验模式，并逐步实行分类管理；
3．3口岸检验检疫机构负责对进口石材实施检验监管和统计工作。
3．4口岸检验检疫机构指定现场放射性检测场站(以下简称“现场检测场站”)。

4进口检验

4.1报检报检人按《出入境检验检疫报检规定》，到入境口岸检验检疫机构办理报检。报检人除提供合同、发票、提单和装箱单等资料外，还应提供符合GB6566—2001分类要求的石材说明书，注明石材原产地、用途、放射性水平类别和适用范围等；报检人未提供说明书或者说明书中未注明的，均视为使用范围不受限制，检验时依据GB6566—2001规定的最严格限量要求进行验收，即石材荒料按建筑主体材料要求验收，石材板料按A类装修材料要求验收。

4．2口岸检验检疫机构受理报检后，场地无法实施现场检测的，应告知报检人将进口石材运抵可实施现场检测的场站(以下称现场检测场站)。
4．3口岸检验检疫机构应在石材运抵现场检测场站后2个工作日内实施现场放射性检测。

4．3．1检测前应仔细核对货证，按不同检验批分别进行放射性检测。
4．3．2检测仪器灵敏度和稳定性应符合石材检测要求，且必须在计量有效期内。检测仪器可以选用便携式γ辐射仪、便携式γ能谱仪或门式放射性测定仪，同一类型仪器应尽可能选取相同的检测条件(如检测距离等)。

4．3．3对于散装石材荒料，抽检石材数量应不少于30%，一旦发现有超过可疑值的，应逐块进行检测。对于集装箱装石材，应逐箱进行检测。

4．3．4对于集装箱装石材，可采取箱体表面检测(应考虑到集装箱屏蔽作用)与开箱检测相结合的办法，必要时可进行掏箱检测。
4．3．5实施现场放射性检测时，应根据石材堆放情况和石材的厚度、表面积大小等，正确选取检测点，尽可能避免周围石材的干扰。每一检测点应至少检测5次，取平均值，检测原始记录格式见附件7．1。

4．4现场检测结果低于可疑值的，免于做进一步核素分析和对货物的监管，口岸检验检疫机构可根据需要出具入境货物检验检疫证明，但不注明相应放射性分类等级。石材说明书中有特定用途或使用要求的，证书中注明相应用途或使用范围。
4．5检测结果高于可疑值的，要求贸易关系人按照GB6566—2001标准要求提供本报验批的核素分析报告，并保留对石材的进一步监管的权利。
4．5．1如发现放射性情况较严重的，应根据辐射防护有关规定，采取相应的防护措施。
4．6口岸检验检疫机构依据天然放射性核素分析报告和GB 6566—2001判断：

4．6．1符合使用范围不受限制的建筑材料要求的，出具入境货物检验检疫证明；可注明相应放射性分类等级和适用范围。

4．6．2不符合4．6．1要求，但符合石材说明书用途，出具入境货物检验检疫证明，注明石材放射性分类等级、用途或使用范围。

4．6．3不符合4．6．1要求或石材说明书用途的，出具检验证书，注明限制使用范围。
5监督管理

5．1符合4．7．2要求的进口石材，口岸检验检疫机构将入境货物检验检疫证明副本抄送当地有关主管部门，必要时进行跟踪监管。
5．2属于4．7．3范围的进口石材，符合限制使用建筑装修材料要求的，口岸检验检疫机构可将证书副本抄送当地主管部门由当地主管部门进行妥善处理。发现放射性严重超标(远大于C类界定值)的建筑装修材料，证书副本抄送当地海关，责令货主作退货处理。

5．3收货地不在本地，而使用范围受限制的石材，口岸检验检疫机构应将入境货物检验检疫证明或检验证书副本抄送目的地检验检疫机构，由目的地检验检疫机构与当地主管部门联系处理。
5．4口岸检验检疫机构应建立进口石材商品档案和数据库。商品档案内容包括超过A类限量要求的进口石材档案、石材品种(花色)、原产地、发货商、收货单位、核素分析情况、统计数(重)量等。数据库内容包括报检号、品名(中英文)、颜色、原产地、数量、重量、金额、现场检测值、本底值及检测仪器型号、核素分析结果等。

5．5口岸检验检疫机构可以依据石材商品档案和数据库，按不同品种、来源等，对进口石材逐步实行分类管理。

5．6口岸检验检疫机构按国家质检总局有关规定上报进口石材检验监管情况。

5．7国家质检总局不定期地在媒体上公布进口石材放射性检验情况。
6其它
6．1进口石材的检疫及卫生处理依据《中华人民共和国进出境动植物检疫法》及其实施条例、《中华人民共和国国境卫生检疫法》及其实施细则等法律法规规定执行。
6．2本操作程序由国家质检总局负责解释。

6．3本操作程序自2002年7月1日起实施。

附件进口涂料和石材对应商品的HS编码

HS编码商品名称

25151100 原状或粗加修整大理石或石灰华
25151200 举行大理石及石灰华(锯或其他办法切割成矩形)
25152000 其他石灰质碑用或建筑用石，蜡石
25161100 原状或粗加修整花岗岩
25161200 矩形花岗岩(用锯或其他办法切割成矩形)'
25162100 原状或粗加修整砂岩
25162200 矩形砂岩(用锯或其他办法切割成矩形)
25169000 其他碑用或建筑用石
68010000 长方砌石、路缘石、扁平石(由天然石料(不包括板岩)所制)
68021010 大理石制砖、瓦，方块及类似品（不论是否为矩形，可置入边长小于7厘米的方格）
68021090 其他石料制砖瓦、方块及类似品（可置入边长小于7厘米的方格（板岩除外，但包括板岩制嵌石））
68022110 经简单切削或锯开的大理石及制品
68022190 经简单切削或锯开的石灰华及蜡石(包括制品)
68022200 经简单切削或锯开的其他石灰石
68022300 经简单切削或锯开的花岗石及制品
68022900 经简单切削或锯开的其他石及制品(不包括板岩)
68029110 大理石，石灰华及蜡石制石刻
68029190 其他已加工大理石及蜡石及制品(包括己加工石灰华及制品)
68029210 其他石灰华制石刻
68029290 其他已加工石灰华制石刻
68029310 花岗岩制石刻
68029390 其他己加工花岗岩及制品
68029910 其他石制成的石刻(不包括板岩制成的石刻)
68029990 其他已加工的石及制品(不包括板岩及制品)
32081011 溶于非水介质的聚能油漆及清漆等(以聚能为基本成分的(包括瓷漆及大漆)
32082010．10溶于非水介质的光导纤维用涂料(以丙烯酸酯类化合物为主要成分)
32082010．90其他聚丙烯酸油漆、清漆等（溶于非水介质的以丙烯酸聚合物为基本成分（包括瓷漆及大漆），
32082020 溶于非水介质的聚乙烯油漆及清漆（以乙烯聚合物为基本成分（包括瓷漆及大漆））
32089010.10 溶于非水介质的光导纤维用涂料（以聚妥酯类化合物为主要成分）
32089010.90 其他聚胺酯油漆清漆等（溶于非水介质以聚胺酯类化合物为基本成分，含瓷漆大漆）
32089090 溶于非水介质其他油漆、清漆溶液（包括以聚合物为基本成分的漆，本章注释四所示溶液）
32091000 溶于水介质的聚丙烯酸油漆及清漆（以聚丙烯酸或聚乙烯为基本成分的（包括瓷漆及大漆）
32099000 溶于水介质其他聚合物油漆及清漆（以合成聚合物或化学改性天然聚合物为基本成分的）


板石的质量检测平整度的检测将直线度公差为0.1mm的钢平尺自然贴放在被检面的两条对角线上，用塞尺或游标卡尺测量尺面与板面之间的间隙。以最大间隙的测量值表示板材的平整度。测量值精确至0.1mm。
角度的检验用内角垂直度公差为0.13mm、内角边长为500mmx400mm的90钢角尺测量。将角尺的短边紧靠板材的短边，角尺的长边贴靠板材的长边，用塞尺或游标卡尺测量板材的长度与角尺长边之间的最大间隙。当板材的长度小于或等于500mm时，可测量板材的任一对对角；当板材的长边大于500mm时，测量板材的四个角。
以最大间隙的测量值表示板材的角度公差，测量值精确至0.1mm。

外观质量的检测①花纹色调将合板板材与颇检验板材平放平放在地上，距板材1.5m处站立目测。
②人工凿痕将板材平放在地上，距板材1.5m处目测。
③色线条数目测色线条数。
④缺角和崩角用游标卡尺测量缺陷的长度、宽度、高度；目测缺角数。
⑤台阶用游标卡尺测量台阶的高度，测量最大值作为台阶的高度。
⑥裂纹可见裂纹采用目测法，隐含裂纹采用锤击法（即用金属锤敲击板材，通过声音，一般是哑音来辨别是否有裂纹）确定。
⑦色斑用游标卡尺测量色斑的尺寸，目测色斑的个数。

石材的硬度

大理石相对来说是比较软的石材，在摩氏硬度表中（MOHS），大理石的等级大概是3（最高为10）。大理石和牙齿一样由钙生成。如果咬太硬的东西，牙齿就会断裂，吃太多糖，牙齿就会穿孔。石材也是如此。如果石材表面所用试剂不当，石材就开始腐烂，形成孔穴。
下面是著名的摩氏硬度表（MOHS）。这个标准是在十九世纪初制定的，它有助于鉴定所用石材的强度和硬度，以便在应用时采取相应的措施。例如，硬度较低的石材需要用较为柔和的试剂，拖洗次数更频繁。

摩氏硬度表
1.滑石2.石膏3.方解石（大多数的大理石） 4.萤石5.磷灰石6.长石（花岗岩） 7.石英（花岗岩） 8.黄玉9.刚玉10.金刚石摩氏硬度表就是用来测量石材耐磨的程度。当沉积物或沙砾比石材表面硬，就会刮伤石材。例如硬塑料硬度等级大约为2.0，它不会刮伤等级为3的方解石(大理石)。硬度为6级的沙子会刮伤3级的方解石但不会刮伤7级的石英石即花岗岩。硬度等级越高，就越耐磨。建筑物中外来沉积物硬度测量值为3.0至7.0。

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